Monasticism

Question: What do you call a person who answers the call to forsake sin and worldly influence, who renounces selfishness, pride, corruption, vanity, and greed, who strives for union with Christ through prayer and fasting, who is dedicated to a life of repentance, sobriety, frugality, obedience, and who vows to deny himself and take up his cross daily?

Answer: a Christian.

All Christians, not just monastics, are called to an ascetical lifestyle. Asceticism (from the Greek word ἄσκησις, meaning "athlete") is "the crucifixion of the desires of the flesh, through a life of prayer, fasting, and self-denial." Asceticism is the constant struggle to stay focused on Christ, and often requires denying ourselves of things that are otherwise morally neutral, like food or comfort.

All Christians are obliged to keep the Lord's commandments, but this requires efforts. Fallen human nature, enslaved by its passions is reluctant to fulfill this obligation. It seeks pleasure and avoids the pain involved in fighting the passions and selfishness. The monastic life is so arranged as to facilitate this work. On the other hand the worldly life, particularly in our secular society, makes it harder to be an ascetic. The problem for the Christian in the world is that he is called upon to reach the same goal under adverse conditions (Georgios I. Mantzarides).

Monasticism (from the Greek μοναχός, meaning "alone") has been with the Church in one form or another since the very beginning. In fact, I have heard that Christian monasticism traces its roots all the way back to the Nazarite tradition of the ancient Hebrews (see Num 6.1-21). Nazarites made an ascetical vow to abstain from liquor, wine, grapes, and raisins, and to perform other acts of obedience. John the Baptist was apparently a Nazarite (Lk 1.13-15), as was James, the brother of Christ, according to the church historians Eusebius (Ecclesiastical History, II, xxiii, vv.5-6), and Epiphanius:

For James was Joseph's son by Joseph's (first) wife, not Mary, as I have said, and discussed with greater clarity in many other places. And moreover I find that he was of Davidic descent because he was Joseph's son, (and) he was born a nazirite--for he was Joseph's first-born, and hence consecrated. (Panarion, 29.4)

During the Roman persecutions, every Christian was a potential martyr. The Christian lifestyle demanded much of its adherents, and only the most dedicated were likely to tough it out and risk exile, torture, or death for the Faith. When Christianity was legalized in the fourth century, it became very easy to be a Christian. Christianity was suddenly fashionable. Christians were no longer being slaughtered for their beliefs, and the church began to take on a more worldly character. Many devout Christians retreated to the deserts or the mountains to escape the corrupting influence of modern society on the Church. There, they formed communities of fellow ascetics. Three important figures in the establishment of organized Christian monasticism are Saints Anthony, Pachomius, and Theodore.

Christian monasticism spread widely through Europe with the work of such figures as Martin of Tours, John Cassian, Honoratus of Arles, and Benedict of Nursia, who is regarded as the founder of western monasticism. It eventually made its way to the British Isles, where Sts Brigid, Columba, St Davis of Wales, St Augustine of Canterbury and others founded monasteries in Ireland, Ionia (pictured above), Northumbria, England, and Wales.

By the sixteenth century, nearly every town in England had at least one monastery or convent. However, following his break from the Roman Church in 1534, King Henry VIII brought English monasticism to an abrupt and unceremonious end, closing England's monasteries and confiscating their lands and assets.

During the Reformation, the entire Protestant west abandoned monasticism on the grounds that it was an attempt to work one's way to heaven, and therefore was contrary to St Paul's writings, which Protestant scholars felt condemned any reliance on works.

But, according to Father George Florovsky, "to misunderstand St. Paul’s critique of 'works,' to think that St. Paul is speaking of the 'works' commanded by our Lord rather than the Judaic understanding of the works of the 'law' is a misreading of a fundamental nature." In other words, Paul is not saying that good works have no role in our salvation, only that we cannot attain righteousness through works alone.

Father Florovsky goes on to say that, "Luther had a point in considering the specific direction in which the Roman Catholic merit-system had gone as a reference point similar to the Judaic legal system." However, the goal of monasticism, despite whatever the Reformers may have thought, is not the accumulation of points for heaven, but, according to Bishop Hilarion Alfayev of Vienna, is "the imitation of Christ whose way of life as described in the Gospel was altogether monastic. He was not married, was free from earthly bonds, had no roof over His head, travelled from place to place, lived in poverty, fasted, and spent nights in prayer. Monasticism is an attempt to come as close as possible to this ideal. It is the quest for sanctity, a search for God as the ultimate goal, the rejection of everything that binds one to earth and prevents one from ascending to heaven."

But aren't we commanded—I have heard asked—to go and make disciples of all nations? How does one make disciples when one is cloistered in a monastery somewhere in the desert or on an island away from civilization?

It occurred to me recently as I considered this question that, throughout history, the majority of Christian writers, historians, theologians, hymnographers and scholars have, in fact, been monks. When someone reads the Patristic writings, more often than not, one is reading the works of Orthodox monastics: John Chrysostom, Basil the Great, John Climacus, John of Damascus (pictured), Pope Gregory the Great (whose writings, ironically, were very instrumental in steering me away from Roman Catholicism and toward Orthodoxy), Maximus the Confessor, Simeon the New Theologian, Gregory Palamas. These men, through their witness and insight, have made countless disciples through the centuries. As have monastic missionaries such as Sts Cyril and Methodius, apostles to the Slavs; Sts Juvenal and Innocent, apostles to North America; and St Patrick, apostle to the Irish. These and other monks introduced, and in some cases actually created, a written language for the people they evangelized. Monastic scholars through the centuries preserved, maintained, and meticulously copied and recopied by hand every page of the Scriptures that we take for granted. Theologians and spiritual fathers of modern times, Silouan the Athonite, John Maximovitch, Seraphim Rose have been monastics, and every single Orthodox bishop is a monk first.

Not everyone is called to be an apostle (1Cor 12.27-31). Some are prophets, some are teachers, and some are miracle workers. Historically, monastics have been all of these, and have worked together, as members of the Body, toward "the perfecting of the saints, for the work of the ministry, for the edifying of the body of Christ."

I have said before—and firmly believe—that there is a difference between making disciples and simply winning converts. Those churches with no history of monasticism are highly successful at filling seats. But are they making disciples? Are they preaching the Gospel unsullied, undiminished, and undistorted?

Let's face it: monastics are simply closer to God than are most ordinary Christians (if you doubt this, spend an hour sometime with a monk and listen carefully to what he has to say), certainly much closer than those of us who are constantly bombarded with worldly influences. Without the input of monastics, I'm not certain the rest of us would have any idea what a disciple even looks like, let alone how to make one. Without every member of the body, including (especially?) monastics, we are "children, tossed to and fro, and carried about with every wind of doctrine, by the sleight of men, and cunning craftiness, whereby they lie in wait to deceive."

So, yes, monastics to in fact make disciples. But they do so by more than simply their spiritual guidance. Monasteries are often buzzing with activity. Some Orthodox monasteries—like St. Paisius Monastery in Arizona and St Isaac Skete in Wisconsin—operate schools. Several have publishing operations, including Dormition Monastery in Michigan and St. Herman of Alaska Monastery in California. Some monastics record and sell liturgical music, some operate gift shops and bookstores. And nearly every monastery has one or more workshops in which they produce iconography, liturgical vestments, wood carvings, candles, mosaics or incense. Every one of these services contributes to the making of disciples.

But what about community? So often the Orthodox Church presses on the need for our active participation in the church community. What about these hermits and recluses that we hear about? This seclusion, more often than not, is temporary (consider St Paul, who spent three years in isolation in Arabia before beginning his ministry: Gal 1.17-18), and in any case is the exception rather than the norm. But even these hermit saints are effective at making disciples. Consider St Seraphim of Sarov, who lived in near complete seclusion in the forest for fifteen years, and St Mary of Egypt, who spent forty-seven years alone in the desert outside Jerusalem. These are but two of many examples of ascetics who, by their example of humility, repentance, patience, obedience, and through their prayers, are making disciples even to this day! Read the lives of these Saints, and you'll know what I mean.

Are monastics perfect? Certainly not! Nor are monasteries without their share of problems. But according to one nun, "monasteries are not meant to be Utopias. They are arenas where men, having accepted the fact of their fallen state, work to be healed of the evil in their own hearts." They are also places where people are committed, and more able than anywhere else, to accept and follow Christ's call to asceticism:

Therefore take no thought, saying, What shall we eat? or, What shall we drink? or, Wherewithal shall we be clothed? (Mt. 6:31)

Then said Jesus unto his disciples, If any man will come after me, let him deny himself, and take up his cross, and follow me. For whosoever will save his life shall lose it: and whosoever will lose his life for my sake shall find it. For what is a man profited, if he shall gain the whole world, and lose his own soul? or what shall a man give in exchange for his soul? (Mt. 16:24-26)

For there are some eunuchs, which were so born from their mother's womb: and there are some eunuchs, which were made eunuchs of men: and there be eunuchs, which have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven's sake. He that is able to receive it, let him receive it (Mt 19.12).

Jesus said unto him, "If thou wilt be perfect, go and sell that thou hast, and give to the poor, and thou shalt have treasure in heaven: and come and follow me" (Mt 19.21).

And every one that hath forsaken houses, or brethren, or sisters, or father, or mother, or wife, or children, or lands, for my name's sake, shall receive an hundredfold, and shall inherit everlasting life (Mt. 19:29).

And Jesus answering said unto them, "The children of this world marry, and are given in marriage: But they which shall be accounted worthy to obtain that world, and the resurrection from the dead, neither marry, nor are given in marriage: Neither can they die any more: for they are equal unto the angels; and are the children of God, being the children of the resurrection" (Lk. 20:34-36; cf. 1Co 7.8-9, 32-35, 39-40).


Recommended reading:
Orthodox Christian Monasticism
The Ascetic Ideal and the New Testament
Orthodox Christian Monasticism
Prayer and monasticism in orthodox tradition (Alfeyev)
The Gospel Call to Monasticism
Monasticism
The Development of Monasticism
St. Seraphim of Sarov's Conversation With Nicholas Motovilov